|
Desirable DifficultiesLargely overlooked in second language learning literature, with notable exceptions including Bjork & Kroll (2015), Pulido & Dussias (2020), Schneider, Healy & Bourne (2002), Serfaty & Serrano (2022), Suzuki, Nakata, & Dekeyser (2019), and Wedlock & Wilson (in press), desirable difficulties (Bjork (1994; Schmidt & Bjork,1992), refer to learning activities or task adjustments that intentionally introduce a desirable level of challenge or complexity to promote more robust long-term learning. While often resulting in lower levels of performance during the practice/learning phase, desirable difficulties lead to enhanced long-term retention and understanding of the to-be-learned material (Healy & Bourne, 2013; Serfaty & Serrano, 2022) as a result of the increased amount of cognitive effort required during the initial encoding and retrieval phases.
|
Common Types of Desirable Difficulties and How to Apply Them
Although educational psychology literature addresses a range of desirable difficulties, the five most frequently discussed are spacing, interleaving, testing, answer/response generation, and varying the conditions or contexts of learning. As such, this article will focus exclusively on these five difficulties and how they may be applied to language education.
1. Spacing: Instead of blocking study, spreading out study sessions over time forces the brain to retrieve information from memory, which strengthens long-term retention. Generally, the duration between each interaction with the material should get progressively longer to maximize learning – although this is not always the case (see Li & DeKeyser, 2019).
Application to Language Instruction:
Instructors should incorporate spaced repetition into their unit or syllabus planning, particularly for vocabulary items. Since most language learning textbooks fail to adequately account for spaced repetition, it becomes crucial for teachers to actively address this gap. By deliberately scheduling repeated exposure to vocabulary (or other to-be-learned language elements) throughout a unit or course, teachers can ensure that students encounter words multiple times at optimal intervals, enhancing retention.
In addition, teachers should guide students on how to utilize spaced repetition effectively, whether through online tools like Quizlet or with traditional flashcards, to reinforce their learning outside the classroom.
2. Interleaving: Mixing different topics or types of problems during study sessions, rather than focusing on just one, can help learners develop better problem-solving skills, deeper understanding, and improved performance.
Application to Language Instruction:
During study sessions, ensure that the material being learned is interleaved with other class content. For example, if you're learning a set of new vocabulary items, you could integrate free recalls of the target words throughout the study session. Simultaneously, make sure these target words (or grammar structures) are used in other parts of the lesson where applicable.
3. Testing/Active Retrieval: Learning involves both encoding and retrieval. Regularly testing learners on the material or having them actively try to recall information, rather than simply reviewing it, strengthens memory and understanding. It also reveals gaps in knowledge and performance, allowing for targeted improvements.
Application to Language Instruction:
Incorporate low-stakes testing (e.g., free or cued recall) as a regular part of your teaching approach. Encouraging students to retrieve previously encountered material strengthens neural connections and reinforces learning. Additionally, have students practice writing or speaking without notes to deepen retention and enhance retrieval (i.e., language use). This method also helps identify gaps that can be addressed in future sessions.
Encourage students to engage in self-explanation, where they articulate their reasoning or understanding of the material as they study. This process not only helps to clarify their thinking but also strengthens their ability to retrieve and apply knowledge. Teachers can integrate this strategy by asking students to explain grammar rules, make sentences with recently learned vocabulary, or explain cultural nuances in their own words during class discussions or written exercises.
4. Varying Conditions of Learning: Studying in different environments or under varied conditions can help learners become more adaptable and improve their ability to recall information in different contexts.
Application to Language Instruction:
If your institution doesn't require classes or practice sessions to be conducted in a specific location, consider varying your study contexts (e.g., in the classroom, in a park, in a different classroom, or for more advanced adult learners, in a café). However, be mindful of cognitive load—too much outside interference or external stimuli (e.g., noisy environments) can increase cognitive load, potentially negatively impacting learning. Yet, for more advanced learners, this type of “desirable” difficulty may actually enhance their ability to perform in real-world situations.
To effectively implement this strategy, gradually introduce more complex environments as learners progress. Begin with controlled, low-distraction settings and slowly increase environmental variability to challenge learners appropriately without overwhelming them.
5. Response Generation: Attempting to solve a problem before being taught the solution can make the learning process more difficult, but it also often leads to better retention and understanding once the correct solution is learned.
Application to Language Instruction:
Having students attempt to produce language slightly outside their ZPD before fully learning the correct way to do so encourages deeper cognitive processing and helps identify gaps in their knowledge or performance (as long as the students make a realistic attempt at producing the language). For example, asking students to draft a piece of writing before teaching them the typical style and conventions of that genre can be effective in writing instruction. This approach makes the correct words and structures more memorable once they are learned—especially if they are learned soon after the initial attempt and reinforced through targeted feedback and spaced repetition.
As for vocabulary, one strategy I use with young learners is to have them guess the animals hidden behind nine squares on my PowerPoint slide. The children can either give real animal names they know in English (i.e., free recall of previously learned animals), or provide a name for the animal in their own language if they don’t know the name in English (e.g., “Square one is 말”). After the children guess all nine squares, we review and check. In most cases, the children guess wrong (i.e., they generate the wrong answer as they can’t see the picture yet). When they see the pictures of the animals and are provided with their real names, it becomes memorable (e.g., “OK, so you said Square 1 is 말 – 말 is horse in English. So let’s see, is this a horse? (Flip image). No, it’s an echidna. Everyone, e-kid-na. Is an echidna a horse? No. An echidna is an echidna.”). Once the new nine animals are revealed, I cover them again and interleave this during the class (e.g., “Billy, what is the animal under square 4? And where is it from?”). In this activity I always have three images of animals they already know, and the rule is, if they guess any animal (new or to-be-learned) correctly, then I have to learn the names of the animals in the set in Korean before the next class. If I fail, they can skip one homework activity.
Caveats to Desirable Difficulties
1. Alignment with Learner Competencies: Desirable difficulties must be carefully structured and matched to learners' current stage of learning. If the tasks are too challenging relative to the learners' competencies, they may result in undesirable difficulties, leading to frustration and disengagement rather than enhanced learning.
2. Initial Vocabulary Learning: Blocked repetition may be beneficial during the initial stage of vocabulary acquisition, as it allows learners to focus intensively on new material. However, spaced repetition should be introduced soon after this initial blocked practice to optimize retention and long-term learning outcomes.
3. The Role of Feedback: Feedback is crucial when utilizing desirable difficulties, particularly with the strategy of answer/response generation. Ensure that your lessons provide timely and effective feedback that aligns with the assigned tasks to reinforce learning and correct misunderstandings.
4. Selective Application: Not all language learning activities and tasks need to employ desirable difficulties. However, carefully considering which desirable difficulties are appropriate for your learners at different stages in their learning process can help yield enhanced learning outcomes.
5. Cognitive Load Management: While introducing desirable difficulties, it’s essential to monitor and manage cognitive load. Overloading learners with too many challenges at once can be counterproductive. Strive to balance difficulty with learners' capacity to handle and process information, gradually increasing complexity as they become more proficient.
Future Directions
Building on the assertions of Bjork & Kroll (2015) and Healy & Bourne (2013), research on desirable difficulties in language learning has the potential to provide valuable insights into the optimal learning conditions and methods for achieving the best language learning outcomes. Therefore, I believe it is time for SLA researchers to not only investigate the various desirable difficulties already identified but also to develop and test new ones that may be particularly beneficial for second language learning, such as induced L1 interference (see Pulido & Dussias, 2020), talker variability (see Bulgarelli & Weiss, 2021), and time pressure. By integrating insights from related domains—such as cognitive neuroscience, memory studies, and educational psychology—SLA researchers have a unique opportunity to deepen our understanding of the most effective strategies and protocols for learning a second language.
Thanks for reading.
References
Bjork, R. A. (1994). Memory and metamemory considerations in the training of human beings. In J. Metcalfe & A. Shimamura (Eds.), Metacognition: Knowing about Knowing (pp. 185–205). MIT Press.
Bjork, R. A., & Kroll, J. F. (2015). Desirable difficulties in vocabulary learning. The American journal of psychology, 128(2), 241-252.
Bulgarelli, F., & Weiss, D. J. (2021). Desirable difficulties in language learning? How talker variability impacts artificial grammar learning. Language learning, 71(4), 1085-1121.
Healy, A. F., & Bourne Jr, L. E. (2013). Empirically valid principles for training in the real world. The American journal of psychology, 126(4), 389-399.
Li, M., & DeKeyser, R. (2019). Distribution of practice effects in the acquisition and retention of L2 mandarin tonal word production. The Modern Language Journal, 103, 607–628.
Pulido, M. F., & Dussias, P. E. (2020). Desirable difficulties while learning collocations in a second language: Conditions that induce L1 interference improve learning. Bilingualism: Language and cognition, 23(3), 652-667.
Serfaty, J., & Serrano, R. (2022). Lag effects in grammar learning: A desirable difficulties perspective. Applied Psycholinguistics, 43(3), 513-550.
Schmidt, R. A., & Bjork, R. A. (1992). New conceptualizations of practice: Common principles in three paradigms suggest new concepts for training. Psychological Science, 3, 207–217.
Schneider, V. I., Healy, A. F., & Bourne Jr, L. E. (2002). What is learned under difficult conditions is hard to forget: Contextual interference effects in foreign vocabulary acquisition, retention, and transfer. Journal of Memory and Language, 46(2), 419-440.
Suzuki, Y., Nakata, T., & Dekeyser, R. (2019). The desirable difficulty framework as a theoretical foundation for optimizing and researching second language practice. Modern Language Journal, 103(3), 713–720. https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12585
Wedlock, J. & Wilson, N. (in press). Inclusion in the learning game: Applying considerations from cognitive neuroscience, educational psychology, and SLA to language learning activity and materials design.
Although educational psychology literature addresses a range of desirable difficulties, the five most frequently discussed are spacing, interleaving, testing, answer/response generation, and varying the conditions or contexts of learning. As such, this article will focus exclusively on these five difficulties and how they may be applied to language education.
1. Spacing: Instead of blocking study, spreading out study sessions over time forces the brain to retrieve information from memory, which strengthens long-term retention. Generally, the duration between each interaction with the material should get progressively longer to maximize learning – although this is not always the case (see Li & DeKeyser, 2019).
Application to Language Instruction:
Instructors should incorporate spaced repetition into their unit or syllabus planning, particularly for vocabulary items. Since most language learning textbooks fail to adequately account for spaced repetition, it becomes crucial for teachers to actively address this gap. By deliberately scheduling repeated exposure to vocabulary (or other to-be-learned language elements) throughout a unit or course, teachers can ensure that students encounter words multiple times at optimal intervals, enhancing retention.
In addition, teachers should guide students on how to utilize spaced repetition effectively, whether through online tools like Quizlet or with traditional flashcards, to reinforce their learning outside the classroom.
2. Interleaving: Mixing different topics or types of problems during study sessions, rather than focusing on just one, can help learners develop better problem-solving skills, deeper understanding, and improved performance.
Application to Language Instruction:
During study sessions, ensure that the material being learned is interleaved with other class content. For example, if you're learning a set of new vocabulary items, you could integrate free recalls of the target words throughout the study session. Simultaneously, make sure these target words (or grammar structures) are used in other parts of the lesson where applicable.
3. Testing/Active Retrieval: Learning involves both encoding and retrieval. Regularly testing learners on the material or having them actively try to recall information, rather than simply reviewing it, strengthens memory and understanding. It also reveals gaps in knowledge and performance, allowing for targeted improvements.
Application to Language Instruction:
Incorporate low-stakes testing (e.g., free or cued recall) as a regular part of your teaching approach. Encouraging students to retrieve previously encountered material strengthens neural connections and reinforces learning. Additionally, have students practice writing or speaking without notes to deepen retention and enhance retrieval (i.e., language use). This method also helps identify gaps that can be addressed in future sessions.
Encourage students to engage in self-explanation, where they articulate their reasoning or understanding of the material as they study. This process not only helps to clarify their thinking but also strengthens their ability to retrieve and apply knowledge. Teachers can integrate this strategy by asking students to explain grammar rules, make sentences with recently learned vocabulary, or explain cultural nuances in their own words during class discussions or written exercises.
4. Varying Conditions of Learning: Studying in different environments or under varied conditions can help learners become more adaptable and improve their ability to recall information in different contexts.
Application to Language Instruction:
If your institution doesn't require classes or practice sessions to be conducted in a specific location, consider varying your study contexts (e.g., in the classroom, in a park, in a different classroom, or for more advanced adult learners, in a café). However, be mindful of cognitive load—too much outside interference or external stimuli (e.g., noisy environments) can increase cognitive load, potentially negatively impacting learning. Yet, for more advanced learners, this type of “desirable” difficulty may actually enhance their ability to perform in real-world situations.
To effectively implement this strategy, gradually introduce more complex environments as learners progress. Begin with controlled, low-distraction settings and slowly increase environmental variability to challenge learners appropriately without overwhelming them.
5. Response Generation: Attempting to solve a problem before being taught the solution can make the learning process more difficult, but it also often leads to better retention and understanding once the correct solution is learned.
Application to Language Instruction:
Having students attempt to produce language slightly outside their ZPD before fully learning the correct way to do so encourages deeper cognitive processing and helps identify gaps in their knowledge or performance (as long as the students make a realistic attempt at producing the language). For example, asking students to draft a piece of writing before teaching them the typical style and conventions of that genre can be effective in writing instruction. This approach makes the correct words and structures more memorable once they are learned—especially if they are learned soon after the initial attempt and reinforced through targeted feedback and spaced repetition.
As for vocabulary, one strategy I use with young learners is to have them guess the animals hidden behind nine squares on my PowerPoint slide. The children can either give real animal names they know in English (i.e., free recall of previously learned animals), or provide a name for the animal in their own language if they don’t know the name in English (e.g., “Square one is 말”). After the children guess all nine squares, we review and check. In most cases, the children guess wrong (i.e., they generate the wrong answer as they can’t see the picture yet). When they see the pictures of the animals and are provided with their real names, it becomes memorable (e.g., “OK, so you said Square 1 is 말 – 말 is horse in English. So let’s see, is this a horse? (Flip image). No, it’s an echidna. Everyone, e-kid-na. Is an echidna a horse? No. An echidna is an echidna.”). Once the new nine animals are revealed, I cover them again and interleave this during the class (e.g., “Billy, what is the animal under square 4? And where is it from?”). In this activity I always have three images of animals they already know, and the rule is, if they guess any animal (new or to-be-learned) correctly, then I have to learn the names of the animals in the set in Korean before the next class. If I fail, they can skip one homework activity.
Caveats to Desirable Difficulties
1. Alignment with Learner Competencies: Desirable difficulties must be carefully structured and matched to learners' current stage of learning. If the tasks are too challenging relative to the learners' competencies, they may result in undesirable difficulties, leading to frustration and disengagement rather than enhanced learning.
2. Initial Vocabulary Learning: Blocked repetition may be beneficial during the initial stage of vocabulary acquisition, as it allows learners to focus intensively on new material. However, spaced repetition should be introduced soon after this initial blocked practice to optimize retention and long-term learning outcomes.
3. The Role of Feedback: Feedback is crucial when utilizing desirable difficulties, particularly with the strategy of answer/response generation. Ensure that your lessons provide timely and effective feedback that aligns with the assigned tasks to reinforce learning and correct misunderstandings.
4. Selective Application: Not all language learning activities and tasks need to employ desirable difficulties. However, carefully considering which desirable difficulties are appropriate for your learners at different stages in their learning process can help yield enhanced learning outcomes.
5. Cognitive Load Management: While introducing desirable difficulties, it’s essential to monitor and manage cognitive load. Overloading learners with too many challenges at once can be counterproductive. Strive to balance difficulty with learners' capacity to handle and process information, gradually increasing complexity as they become more proficient.
Future Directions
Building on the assertions of Bjork & Kroll (2015) and Healy & Bourne (2013), research on desirable difficulties in language learning has the potential to provide valuable insights into the optimal learning conditions and methods for achieving the best language learning outcomes. Therefore, I believe it is time for SLA researchers to not only investigate the various desirable difficulties already identified but also to develop and test new ones that may be particularly beneficial for second language learning, such as induced L1 interference (see Pulido & Dussias, 2020), talker variability (see Bulgarelli & Weiss, 2021), and time pressure. By integrating insights from related domains—such as cognitive neuroscience, memory studies, and educational psychology—SLA researchers have a unique opportunity to deepen our understanding of the most effective strategies and protocols for learning a second language.
Thanks for reading.
References
Bjork, R. A. (1994). Memory and metamemory considerations in the training of human beings. In J. Metcalfe & A. Shimamura (Eds.), Metacognition: Knowing about Knowing (pp. 185–205). MIT Press.
Bjork, R. A., & Kroll, J. F. (2015). Desirable difficulties in vocabulary learning. The American journal of psychology, 128(2), 241-252.
Bulgarelli, F., & Weiss, D. J. (2021). Desirable difficulties in language learning? How talker variability impacts artificial grammar learning. Language learning, 71(4), 1085-1121.
Healy, A. F., & Bourne Jr, L. E. (2013). Empirically valid principles for training in the real world. The American journal of psychology, 126(4), 389-399.
Li, M., & DeKeyser, R. (2019). Distribution of practice effects in the acquisition and retention of L2 mandarin tonal word production. The Modern Language Journal, 103, 607–628.
Pulido, M. F., & Dussias, P. E. (2020). Desirable difficulties while learning collocations in a second language: Conditions that induce L1 interference improve learning. Bilingualism: Language and cognition, 23(3), 652-667.
Serfaty, J., & Serrano, R. (2022). Lag effects in grammar learning: A desirable difficulties perspective. Applied Psycholinguistics, 43(3), 513-550.
Schmidt, R. A., & Bjork, R. A. (1992). New conceptualizations of practice: Common principles in three paradigms suggest new concepts for training. Psychological Science, 3, 207–217.
Schneider, V. I., Healy, A. F., & Bourne Jr, L. E. (2002). What is learned under difficult conditions is hard to forget: Contextual interference effects in foreign vocabulary acquisition, retention, and transfer. Journal of Memory and Language, 46(2), 419-440.
Suzuki, Y., Nakata, T., & Dekeyser, R. (2019). The desirable difficulty framework as a theoretical foundation for optimizing and researching second language practice. Modern Language Journal, 103(3), 713–720. https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12585
Wedlock, J. & Wilson, N. (in press). Inclusion in the learning game: Applying considerations from cognitive neuroscience, educational psychology, and SLA to language learning activity and materials design.