An evidence-based teaching TESOL blog

Understanding How People Learn: Exploring the Four Essential Modes

9/27/2023

I have mentioned previously, understanding how individuals learn is paramount for both educators and learners. It's a well-known fact that not all learners are the same, with each individual possessing distinct characteristics influencing their learning experiences, outcomes, and relationships with the learning process. In this short post, I will provide an overview of the four essential modes of learning, as well as introduce a fifth mode, Reward Prediction Error (RPE), highlighting their significance for effective education.

1. Novelty: Capturing Curiosity

The human brain has a natural affinity for novelty. New information, something fresh and unfamiliar, captivates our interest and sparks curiosity. When learners encounter novelty, it triggers neural responses that enhance attention and retention. For educators, introducing novel elements into the learning experience can be a potent catalyst for engagement and retention.

2. Repetition and Recall: The Path to Mastery

Extensive research spanning decades underscores the pivotal role of repetition in the pursuit of mastery within the learning process. However, it is essential to recognize that mere exposure to information alone is often insufficient to ensure learning takes place. What genuinely amplifies and solidifies memory is the active recall, deliberate practice, and purposeful engagement with the presented stimulus or to-be-learned material. Instead of passive consumption, educators should inspire learners to actively retrieve and engage with the to-be-learned material. By promoting proactive involvement, practice, and recall, educators have the capacity to significantly enhance the learning process.

3. Emotional Resonance: The Power of Feelings in Learning

Emotions play a pivotal role in the learning journey. Content and/or contexts that elicit emotional responses, whether positive or negative, tend to be more memorable. This phenomenon underscores the significance of creating a conducive emotional environment for learning. In adult education, where learners often have specific objectives, aligning the learning content with their learning goals can be a powerful strategy. It can help ensure that the material resonates deeply, increasing the likelihood of long-term retention. Importantly, both positive and negative emotional associations are implicated in learning. While positive emotions foster an enjoyable learning experience, negative experiences that resonate emotionally often lead to rapid, one-trial learning. This highlights the nuanced role emotions play in shaping our learning outcomes.

4. Association: Building on Existing Mental Frameworks

Learning becomes more accessible when new information aligns with existing mental frameworks or schemas. These frameworks represent cognitive structures individuals use to organize and understand the world. Educators can facilitate learning by encouraging learners to connect new material with their prior knowledge. This process of association not only enhances comprehension but also aids in long-term retention. It's akin to constructing a bridge between the familiar and the unfamiliar, making the learning journey smoother.

* Reward Prediction Error

Reward prediction error, deeply rooted in the fields of neuroscience and psychology, offers insights into how individuals learn from expected outcomes. At its core, it hinges on the "gap" between what one anticipates and what transpires, known as “prediction error”, this concept is key to understanding basic forms of learning.

An overview of RPE:

Prediction: Prior to any outcome, individuals formulate expectations rooted in past experiences, akin to mental predictions.
Outcome: Actual outcomes may align with these predictions or veer off-course, encompassing both favourable and unfavourable results.
Prediction Error: Prediction error quantifies the variance between expectations and reality, serving as a yardstick for surprise.
Dopaminergic Signalling: Within the brain's ventral tegmental area (VTA), dopamine neurons encode this signal. When outcomes exceed expectations (positive prediction error), dopamine release escalates; when they fall short (negative prediction error), dopamine release dwindles.
Learning and Adaptation: Prediction errors drive reinforcement learning and decision-making. Positive prediction errors reinforce behaviours, heightening their likelihood of repetition, while negative prediction errors discourage and reshape behaviours.

In essence, reward prediction errors inform individuals about the relationships between actions and expected outcomes. They play a fundamental role in motivation, reinforcement learning, and addiction.

Conclusion

In conclusion, this exploration of the four essential modes of learning—Novelty, Repetition (and Recall), Emotional Resonance, and Association—along with the concept of Reward Prediction Error (RPE), underscores the significance of understanding how individuals learn. By exploiting the benefits of Novelty, Repetition and Recall, Emotional Resonance, and Association, educators can enrich the learning experience for their students.

Finally, the introduction of Reward Prediction Error (RPE) highlights the critical role of expected outcomes in the learning process. Understanding how prediction, outcome, and the resulting prediction error shape our learning experiences can empower educators to design more effective learning environments. By integrating these modes of learning into their teaching practices, educators can engage students more deeply and enhance the long-term retention of knowledge, ultimately leading to improved learning outcomes.

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The Science of Learning: Key Tenets for Educators

9/23/2023

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In the realm of education, understanding the intricacies of how individuals learn is paramount for both educators and learners. This article synthesizes key principles and strategies underpinned by scientific research to enhance the learning experience (for more information, click here). From the four primary ways people learn to the symbiotic relationship between neurobiological and psychological processes, we delve into the foundations of effective learning.

When it comes to learning, it is essential for educators to have a deep understanding of the various mechanisms that influence the process. Learning is not a one-size-fits-all endeavor; rather, it involves a complex interplay of cognitive, emotional, and environmental factors. In this article, we will explore essential aspects of the science of learning, providing insights and strategies that can be applied to both traditional and online educational settings.

1. The Four Ways People Learn
Learning begins with the recognition that individuals have unique preferences and methods for acquiring knowledge. Recognizing these distinct modes of learning is crucial for educators:

Novelty: The human brain is inherently drawn to novelty. New and fresh information tends to captivate our interest, making it a potent catalyst for learning.
Repetition (+ Recall): Research spanning decades underscores the importance of repetition in achieving mastery. However, a critical aspect of learning is recall, as actively attempting to retrieve information significantly reinforces memory.
Emotional Resonance: Emotions play a pivotal role in the learning process. Content that evokes emotional responses, whether positive or negative, tends to be more memorable. This underscores the significance of setting clear goals with emotional relevance in adult education.
Association: The process of learning is facilitated when new information aligns with existing mental frameworks or schemas. Encouraging learners to connect new material with their prior knowledge enhances comprehension and retention.

2. Duration, Path, and Outcome (DPOs)
Effective learning necessitates a structured approach, characterized by a clear understanding of Duration, Path, and Outcome (DPOs):

Duration: Determining the time allocated for a learning task is essential. This temporal aspect helps learners manage their efforts efficiently.
Path: The strategy or activity chosen significantly impacts the learning process. Educators should carefully select methods that align with specific learning objectives.
Outcome: Identifying the expected learning outcome provides clarity and purpose to the learning endeavor. Learners benefit from understanding the goals they are working toward.

Understanding DPOs (a term I have borrowed from famed Stanford University neuroscientist, Dr Andrew Huberman) offers a structured framework that guides the learning process, providing a roadmap for both educators and learners.

3. Focus and Attention
An often-overlooked but crucial aspect of effective learning is maintaining focus and attention (see Craik & Lockhart, 1972; Posner & Rothbart, 2014). The neuroscience of learning emphasizes that without attention and focus, the learning process is compromised. To ensure learners remain focused, educators must design content that captivates their interest, making learning both interesting and appealing. It should also include “optimal challenges,” (i.e., not too hard and not too easy) as these challenges have been shown to increase one’s level of engagement. Passive learning, devoid of active engagement, yields limited results.

4. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), conceived by Vygotsky (1978), serves as a foundational concept for educators. It represents the space between what a learner can achieve independently and what they can attain with guidance. Educators can leverage the ZPD to tailor challenges and learning difficulty levels, thus fostering growth and competence within their learners.

5. Cognitive Load Theory (CLT)
Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) (proposed by Sweller, 1988) delves into the workings of working memory, instructional practices, and attention in learning. It highlights the need for educational protocols that account for cognitive limitations. CLT identifies three types of cognitive load:

Extraneous load: Cognitive resources allocated to irrelevant elements that hinder learning.
Germane load: The cognitive effort dedicated to learning and the impact of instructional approaches on this effort.
Intrinsic load: The cognitive demands inherent to the material or task being learned.

Aligning instructional practices with CLT can reduce extraneous load while increasing germane load, resulting in more effective learning.

6. Quality Input
Not all input is created equal. In all forms of education, the quality of input (the to-be-learned material) is paramount. It should be presented in a manner that ensures learners can readily understand and engage with it. Ideally, it builds upon their prior knowledge, is level-appropriate, expands their ZPD, and holds known relevance to the learner, fostering a meaningful and effective learning experience.

7. Desirable Difficulty
Generally, learning is better retained when it necessitates a challenging yet manageable level of cognitive effort (see Bjork, 1994, 2013). In essence, this implies that for more enduring learning outcomes, learners should actively and deeply engage with the material. Strategies such as spaced repetition, testing, interleaving, and free recall introduce desirable difficulty, promoting effective learning.

8. Deliberate Practice
Distinct from naïve practice, which involves mindless repetition, deliberate practice (a concept introduced by Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch-Römer, 1993) is purposeful and guided by expert feedback. It results in more robust learning outcomes, making it an essential component of effective learning.

9. Effective Feedback
Feedback, when processed and acted upon by the learner, is a valuable tool for enhancing learning. Combining feedback with feedforward, which provides guidance for future learning, proves more effective than providing feedback alone.

10. Achievable/Optimal Challenge
Setting challenges that learners can overcome with effort fosters self-efficacy, motivation, and focused learning (see Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2009; Rea, 2000). Success breeds further success, making it crucial to strike a balance between achievable and challenging goals.

11. Affective Engagement
Creating a supportive and engaging learning environment significantly impacts learning outcomes. Injecting elements of fun, demonstrating care for learners, and fostering a positive atmosphere can enhance the learning experience.

12. Quality Out-of-Class Learning
Educators must equip learners with the skills to engage effectively with out-of-class learning opportunities. This involves leveraging various technologies, understanding the role of purposeful practice, and collaborating with students to implement effective learning strategies.

13. The Symbiotic Relationship Between Neurobiological and Psychological Processes
Effective educators recognize the symbiotic relationship between neurobiological and psychological processes in learning. By designing learning tasks that align with the brain's memory formation processes, educators can positively impact psychological aspects like motivation and self-efficacy.

14. The True Nature of "Fun" in Learning
Contrary to popular belief, fun in the classroom does not guarantee effective learning. Engaging activities that challenge learners, promote desirable difficulties, and encourage learning from failure often lead to more robust learning outcomes. Importantly, these types of learning tasks are frequently perceived as enjoyable by learners due to their heightened levels of engagement and as a result of the visible learning that often takes place.

Conclusion
In conclusion, understanding the science of learning provides educators with a solid foundation to enhance teaching practices and optimize the learning experience for students. By integrating these principles and strategies, educators can create a more effective and engaging learning environment, leading to improved learning outcomes.

References
Bjork, R. A. (1994). Memory and metamemory considerations in the training of human beings. In J. Metcalfe and A. Shimamura (Eds.), Metacognition: Knowing about knowing (pp. 185–205). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Bjork, R. A. (2013). Desirable difficulties perspective on learning. In H. Pashler (Ed.), Encyclopedia of the mind. Thousand Oaks: Sage Reference.

Craik, F. I., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of verbal learning and verbal behavior, 11(6), 671–684. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(72)80001-X

Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Römer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological review, 100(3), 363.

Ericsson, A., & Pool, R. (2016). Peak: Secrets from the new science of expertise. Random House

Finn, B., & Metcalfe, J. (2010). Scaffolding feedback to maximize long-term error correction. Memory & cognition, 38(7), 951-961.

Hughes, C. J., Costley, J., & Lange, C. (2021). The relationship between attention and extraneous load. Theory and Practice of Second Language Acquisition, 7(2), 61–82.

Kirschner, P. A., & Hendrick, C. (2020). How learning happens: Seminal works in educational psychology and what they mean in practice. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429061523

Metcalfe, J., & Kornell, N. (2007). Principles of cognitive science in education: The effects of generation, errors, and feedback. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14, 225-229.

Nakamura, J., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2009). Flow theory and research. Handbook of positive psychology, 195, 206.

Posner, M. I., & Rothbart, M. K. (2014). Attention to learning of school subjects. Trends in Neuroscience and Education, 3(1), 14–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tine.2014.02.003

Rea, D. W. (2000). Optimal motivation for talent development. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 23(2), 187-216.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society: the Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

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Learning How to Learn: A Vital Skill Schools, Universities, and Educators Must Embrace

9/22/2023

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Often, when it comes to learning, there's one crucial aspect that often goes overlooked – the art of learning itself. It's a skill that, once mastered, can propel students to new heights of academic and personal success, as well as equip them for a lifetime of successful learning. Yet, as crucial as this skill is, it's a skill that's all too often left by the wayside by learning institutions and educators.

Recently, I had a conversation with my good friend’s 10-year-old son who is attending an exclusive school in London, one that comes with a hefty price tag of nearly £25,000 per year. To my astonishment, not a single teacher had taken the time to teach him how to study effectively. Furthermore, he had never been taught about how the brain learns, how to overcome the challenges that students face in relation to learning, or the key factors known to influence learning outcomes (e.g., sleep, focus, attention, arousal levels) – information that has been proven to significantly enhance learning outcomes and cultivate resilience in the face of challenges.

Prompted by this conversation, I couldn't help but wonder: could this be an isolated case?

As a researcher and educator, I decided to delve deeper. I began by asking the children of my friends about their experiences with learning how to learn. Over the past two weeks, I've spoken to 12 children (aged 9 – 16), all attending different schools, and the results were truly disappointing. Except for a few children who received some very basic tips, not one of these young learners had received comprehensive instruction on how to learn, or the way the brain acquires knowledge.

Wanting to know more, I then reached out to several of my friends currently studying at various universities in Australia and the United Kingdom to ask if they had ever been taught how to learn. With very few exceptions, these university students had not been taught how to learn most effectively either. Considering that universities are places that are supposed to equip students with skills for their future pursuits – academic, vocational, and personal – I would think that learning how to learn should be one of the most important skills universities would focus on teaching, alongside critical thinking, analytical skills, communication skills, collaboration, and domain-specific knowledge.

These dual revelations are not meant to disparage our dedicated educators; rather, it's a call to action. It underscores an area where our education system and educators can profoundly impact students' lives. As such, it's time for schools and educators to recognize the importance of teaching students not only what to study but, critically, how to study or, as I often tell my students, how to learn.

Why is this so vital? Because the ability to learn effectively goes beyond passing exams; it's about nurturing a passion for learning and empowering students to become self-sufficient, independent thinkers and doers. It equips them with the skills needed to navigate an increasingly complex world and, in many cases, to realize their dreams, both present and future.

So, what does effective learning entail? It encompasses a range of strategies such as active recall, spaced repetition, goal setting, developing adaptive habits, embracing challenges, fostering a growth mindset, understanding the mechanics of the learning brain, being aware of the role sleep plays in the learning process, promoting focus and attention, and mastering time management and self-monitoring skills (to name but a few). These aren't mere educational buzzwords; they are evidence-based techniques and strategies that can enhance retention, comprehension, grit, motivation, and critical thinking (to name just a few). Teaching students how to harness these methods and what the learning process entails can revolutionize their learning experiences.

With all of this in mind, I hope more educators and learning institutions consider placing the science of learning how to learn at the forefront of their curriculums.

Thanks for reading.
Josh

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Selecting the Perfect English Learning Books for Children: A Guide for Educators and Parents

9/13/2023

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Introduction:
As educators and parents, one of our primary goals is to facilitate the learning process for children, especially when it comes to acquiring a new language like English. A powerful tool in achieving this goal is choosing the right books for children. In this blog post, we'll delve into the essential considerations for selecting books that can aid in a child's English language learning journey. We'll explore the importance of age-appropriateness, vocabulary level, repetition, and matching books to a child's interests. By the end of this article, you'll have a clear understanding of how to make informed choices that nurture language development while ensuring that the reading experience remains enjoyable.

Time Spent Reading and Language Learning:
It's well-established that the more time children spend reading, the better their language learning outcomes. Reading not only exposes them to new words and sentence structures but also enhances their comprehension skills. Therefore, encouraging a love for reading from an early age is crucial. I personally suggest children aim to read for at least 60 minutes per week, broken up into 3 x 20-minute sessions.

Age, Language Level, and Content Appropriateness:
When selecting books for language learners, it's essential to consider their age, language proficiency, and interests. Age-appropriate books ensure that the content is relatable and engaging, while language level-appropriate books help children learn without becoming overwhelmed by unfamiliar words and structures. Furthermore, choosing books related to a child's interests sparks enthusiasm and motivation.

Vocabulary Density:
To gauge a book's suitability for language learning, a simple rule of thumb is the "3 to 5 unknown words per 100 words" guideline. Encourage your child to read about 200 words and count how many words are unfamiliar. If there are more than 10, consider choosing an easier book or reading the book together so you can assist with comprehension. For enjoyable free reading, children should already know most of the words to maintain the flow of reading and enjoyment.

Repetition is Key:
Repetition plays a vital role in language acquisition. Opt for shorter books that allow for multiple readings. Repeated exposure to familiar vocabulary and sentence structures reduces cognitive load and boosts a child's confidence. While not every book requires multiple readings, it's a valuable strategy to include in your learning protocols.

Matching Familiar Stories:
Another effective technique is selecting books related to stories your child already knows in their native language. This reduces cognitive load as they can focus on learning English within a familiar context. It also fosters a sense of accomplishment as they can easily connect the storylines.

Avoiding Overly Challenging Books:
It's essential to strike a balance between challenging and manageable reading materials. Overly difficult books can lead to frustration and demotivation, hindering language learning progress. Save more complex "language learning" books for classroom settings, where educators can provide guidance and support.

Conclusion:
In conclusion, choosing the right books for children learning English is a crucial step in nurturing their language skills. By considering age-appropriateness, language level, vocabulary density, repetition, and aligning books with their interests, educators and parents can create a stimulating and enjoyable reading experience. Remember that the goal is not just to teach English but also to instill a lifelong love for reading. So, let's choose wisely and empower our children to become confident and proficient English language learners

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Selecting and Using Video Clips for Intentional Second Language Learning: Ten Considerations

9/13/2023

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In the realm of second language acquisition (SLA), the use of video clips as a pedagogical tool has gained substantial recognition. Informed by extensive research and relevant literature in SLA, educational psychology, and cognitive load theory, this article, which is based on a research paper myself and Chris Binnie have recently published, presents ten interconnected research-based considerations for educators and learners embarking on the journey of intentional second language learning through video content.

Consideration 1: Attention & Depth of Processing
Engaging with video content is more than mere passive viewing. It involves activating various cognitive processes. Educators and learners are encouraged to employ bottom-up, top-down, and metacognitive language learning strategies to deepen their attention and language processing capabilities, enhancing the learning potential of videos.

Consideration 2: Needs, Goals, & Interests
Personalizing the video selection process is essential. Understanding learners' language needs, goals, and interests enables educators to choose videos that align with students' existing knowledge and linguistic requirements. Balancing student interest with linguistic proficiency is key to fostering effective language learning.

Consideration 3: Appropriateness
Considering learners' demographics and cultural backgrounds is paramount when selecting video content. This consideration helps avoid exposing learners to inappropriate or offensive material that may deter their motivation and willingness to use videos for language learning.

Consideration 4: Background Knowledge
Leveraging learners' existing knowledge and experiences is a powerful strategy. Aligning video content with students' prior knowledge enhances comprehension and vocabulary acquisition. Schema-building activities before viewing videos can further support this process.

Consideration 5: Clip Duration
The duration of video clips plays a crucial role in engagement. Videos should be of an appropriate length to maintain learners' concentration and prevent cognitive overload. Tailoring clip duration to the learners' ability to concentrate is essential.

Consideration 6: Format & Genre
The format and genre of a video significantly influence its language content and appropriateness. Careful consideration of these factors ensures that videos align with learners' specific needs and preferences.

Consideration 7: Optimal Comprehensible Input
Comprehensible input is vital for language development. The complexity and richness of the language in videos affect learners' ability to expand their linguistic knowledge. Selecting content that learners can understand, coupled with effective learning strategies, maximizes meaningful language engagement.

Consideration 8: Voice Quality, Vocal & Paralinguistic Features
Paralinguistic features, such as body language, accent, and vocal nuances, contribute to understanding the intended meaning of video content. Educators should guide learners to not only focus on the linguistic aspects but also on these paralinguistic features for comprehensive language learning.

Consideration 9: Background Interference & Extraneous Load
Excessive background interference, such as noise or complex storylines, can hinder language learning. Identifying genres and formats that contribute to extraneous cognitive load helps educators and learners manage distractions effectively.

Consideration 10: Captions & Subtitles
Text-based support, like captions and subtitles, can aid language learning. However, educators must ensure that such support matches learners' reading proficiency. Overuse or misuse of text-based support can hinder rather than facilitate language learning.

Conclusion
This article provides a comprehensive framework for educators and learners to make informed decisions when selecting and using video clips for intentional second language learning. It emphasizes the importance of considering pedagogical intent, learner demographics, language proficiency, and engagement strategies. A dual-learning approach, combining both implicit and intentional learning, is recommended to accelerate language acquisition. While perfection may be elusive in video selection, careful consideration of these factors can significantly enhance intentional language learning outcomes.

In the ever-evolving landscape of language education, the role of video as a potent tool cannot be underestimated. By integrating these ten considerations into their practice, educators and learners can leverage the power of intentional engagement with video content to optimize learning outcomes.

Reference
Wedlock, J., & Binnie, C. (2023). Selecting and using authentic videos for intentional second language learning: Nine considerations. English Australia Journal, 39(1), 24-40.
Link to paper

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Understanding How People Learn: Exploring the Four Essential Modes

The Science of Learning: Key Tenets for Educators

Learning How to Learn: A Vital Skill Schools, Universities, and Educators Must Embrace

Selecting the Perfect English Learning Books for Children: A Guide for Educators and Parents

Selecting and Using Video Clips for Intentional Second Language Learning: Ten Considerations

Joshua Wedlock

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